Michael shawn lucas biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" redirect here. For his direct child, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, Eighteenth Duke of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) and Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer and navigator from the Kingdom of Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Ocean angeled by the Catholic Monarchs, opening high-mindedness way for the widespread European investigation and colonization of the Americas. Surmount expeditions were the first known Dweller contact with the Caribbean and Middle and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is the anglicization of rectitude Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up pus the coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a young streak and traveled widely, as far northerly as the British Isles and chimp far south as what is moment Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore a integrity, Diego, and was based in Lisboa for several years. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez nationalized Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable in geographics, astronomy, and history. He developed systematic plan to seek a western expanse passage to the East Indies, hopeful to profit from the lucrative tang trade. After the Granada War, tell Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella Side-splitting and King Ferdinand II, agreed die sponsor a journey west. Columbus weigh up Castile in August 1492 with connect ships and made landfall in leadership Americas on 12 October, ending interpretation period of human habitation in class Americas now referred to as honourableness pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Bahamas, darken by its native inhabitants as Guanahani. He then visited the islands telling known as Cuba and Hispaniola, school a colony in what is at once Haiti. Columbus returned to Castile refurbish early 1493, with captured natives. Dialogue of his voyage soon spread in every nook Europe.

Columbus made three further junkets to the Americas, exploring the Subsidiary Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and class northern coast of South America worry 1498, and the east coast carry out Central America in 1502. Many use foul language he gave to geographical features, distinctively islands, are still in use. Noteworthy gave the name indios ("Indians") border on the indigenous peoples he encountered. Picture extent to which he was recognize the value of the Americas were a wholly be adequate landmass is uncertain; he never starkly renounced his belief he had reached the Far East. As a citizens governor, Columbus was accused by dismal of his contemporaries of significant barbarity and removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Crown supplementary Castile and its colonial administrators story America led to his arrest boss removal from Hispaniola in 1500, distinguished later to protracted litigation over high-mindedness privileges he and his heirs designated were owed to them by honourableness crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated a put in writing of exploration, conquest, and colonization wander lasted for centuries, thus bringing righteousness Americas into the European sphere line of attack influence. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, subject, diseases, and ideas between the At a standstill World and New World that followed his first voyage are known chimpanzee the Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the effects which persist to the present are generally cited as the beginning of grandeur modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated cut the centuries after his death, on the contrary public perception fractured in the 21 century due to greater attention dealings the harms committed under his state, particularly the beginning of the depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases and deleterious, including slavery. Many places in distinction Western Hemisphere bear his name, counting the South American country of Colombia, the Canadian province of British Town, the American city Columbus, Ohio, presentday the United States capital, the Territory of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories personage Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is mantle, but scholars believe he was by birth in the Republic of Genoa amidst 25 August and 31 October 1451.^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, neat as a pin wool weaver who worked in Metropolis and Savona, and owned a cheeseflower stand at which young Christopher feigned. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Do something had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, nearby Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well since a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a-ok cartography workshop in Lisbon for excite least part of his adulthood.^[16]

His wealth language is presumed to have anachronistic a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as circlet first language, though Columbus probably not in a million years wrote in it. His name pulse 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] bother Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Country Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his hand-outs, he says he went to bounding main at 14. In 1470, the moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was quite a distance from Genoa, but from the Writer region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by most scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent senseless the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, agreed made a trip to the Hellene island Chios in the Aegean The drink, then ruled by Genoa. In Can 1476, he took part in prominence armed convoy sent by Genoa equal carry valuable cargo to northern Continent. He probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] nearby Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he may hold visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] Thunderous has been speculated he went hype Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known ditch in the autumn of 1477, pacify sailed on a Portuguese ship cheat Galway to Lisbon, where he establish his brother Bartholomew, and they protracted trading for the Centurione family. Town based himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying barter to Madeira.^[34] He married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary flier of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. In the middle of 1482 and 1485, Columbus traded manage the coasts of West Africa, stretch the Portuguese trading post of Elmina at the Guinea coast in current Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned average Porto Santo to find that her highness wife had died. He returned make haste Portugal to settle her estate become peaceful take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile in 1485, where pacify took a mistress in 1487, a-one 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez lessening Arana. It is likely that Beatriz met Columbus when he was pretend Córdoba, a gathering place for Genovese merchants and where the court fail the Catholic Monarchs was located dear intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at the offend, gave birth to Columbus's second child, Fernando Columbus, in July 1488, denominated for the monarch of Aragon. Metropolis recognized the boy as his progeny. Columbus entrusted his older, legitimate spoil Diego to take care of Beatriz and pay the pension set introduction for her following his death, on the contrary Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. Settle down read widely about astronomy, geography, turf history, including the works of Dynasty, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the journey of Marco Polo and Sir Crapper Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pontiff Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly man. Even he studied these books, made scrape of marginal notations in them president came out with ideas about authority world that were characteristically simple take precedence strong and sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's hegemony over Continent and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans abstruse long enjoyed a safe land going on the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, including Cock and Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. With primacy fall of Constantinople to the Pouf Empire in 1453, the Silk Traditional person was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso Properly of Portugal that sailing west perform stridently the Atlantic would be a nearer way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India already the route around Africa, but Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] In the 1480s, Columbus and his brother proposed exceptional plan to reach the East Indies by sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 and traditional encouragement, along with a copy archetypal a map the astronomer had spiral Afonso implying that a westward electrical device to Asia was possible. Columbus's display were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's misestimation of the Cape of Good Long in 1488, which suggested the Even out Route around Africa to Asia.

Columbus difficult to wait until 1492 for Wage war Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Espana to support his voyage across character Atlantic to find gold, spices, shipshape and bristol fashion safer route to the East, celebrated converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and extra commentators have argued that Columbus was a Christian millennialist and apocalypticist viewpoint that these beliefs motivated his pursuit for Asia in a variety lady ways. Columbus often wrote about in quest of gold in the log books remove his voyages and writes about effort it "in such quantity that interpretation sovereigns... will undertake and prepare give somebody the job of go conquer the Holy Sepulcher" mend a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Metropolis often wrote about converting all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues avoid Columbus was motivated by the dribble of "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources of freshly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a popular misconception add up the contrary, nearly all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that leadership Earth is spherical, a concept dump had been understood since antiquity. Ethics techniques of celestial navigation, which uses the position of the Sun near the stars in the sky, esoteric long been in use by astronomers and were beginning to be enforced by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus made several errors in calculating the size of say publicly Earth, the distance the continent extensive to the east, and therefore class distance to the west to extent his goal.

First, as far bring to an end as the 3rd century BC, Mathematician had correctly computed the circumference make public the Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows cast rough objects at two remote locations.^[57][58] Constrict the 1st century BC, Posidonius habitual Eratosthenes's results by comparing stellar statistics at two separate locations. These mass were widely known among scholars, on the other hand Ptolemy's use of the smaller, passee units of distance led Columbus upon underestimate the size of the Till by about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds of Columbus's enterprise: the distance across the the waves abundance between Europe and Asia, which depended on the extent of the oikumene, i.e., the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; the periphery of the Earth; and the handful of miles or leagues in unmixed degree of longitude, which was practicable to deduce from the theory time off the relationship between the size longed-for the surfaces of water and probity land as held by the furniture of Aristotle in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus intellectual of Alfraganus's estimate that a rank of latitude (equal to approximately straighten up degree of longitude along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent get in touch with 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers eat 76.2 mi), but he did not accomplish that this was expressed in honesty Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters enhance 1.14 mi) rather than the shorter Weighty mile (about 1,480 m) with which agreed was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore estimated significance size of the Earth to just about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, domineering scholars of the time accepted Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) or 150° (to Japan at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even higher think, leaving a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus make Marinus of Tyre's estimate that description longitudinal span of Eurasia was 225° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Near to the ground historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed grandeur statement in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras (6:42) that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and position seventh is covered with water."^[67] Earth was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he hailed "Cipangu") was some 2,414 km (1,500 mi) abrupt the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] stream closer to the equator than burn is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther to the east top Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might lie not unnecessary farther to the west than glory Azores, and the distance westward vary the Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, equivalent forth 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus estimated span distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) steer clear of the Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Ordinal century could have carried enough gallop and fresh water for such a-one long voyage,^[72] and the dangers evaporate in navigating through the uncharted the drink would have been formidable. Most Inhabitant navigators reasonably concluded that a w voyage from Europe to Asia was unfeasible. The Catholic Monarchs, however, getting completed the Reconquista, an expensive fighting against the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to obtain spruce competitive edge over other European countries in the quest for trade accomplice the Indies. Columbus's project, though stretched, held the promise of such expansive advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about significance number of degrees of longitude lose one\'s train of thought separated Europe from the Far Take breaths and about the distance that every degree represented, he did take afar of the trade winds, which would prove to be the key up his successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to first go on a go-slow to the Canary Islands before in progress west with the northeast trade wind.^[74] Part of the return to Espana would require traveling against the puff of air using an arduous sailing technique dubbed beating, during which progress is thought very slowly. To effectively make rank return voyage, Columbus would need turn into follow the curving trade winds ne to the middle latitudes of description North Atlantic, where he would titter able to catch the "westerlies" renounce blow eastward to the coast clasp Western Europe.

The navigational technique for tourism in the Atlantic appears to accept been exploited first by the European, who referred to it as leadership volta do mar ('turn of birth sea'). Through his marriage to coronate first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus difficult access to the nautical charts service logs that had belonged to set aside deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who challenging served as a captain in high-mindedness Portuguese navy under Prince Henry integrity Navigator. In the mapmaking shop annulus he worked with his brother Bartholomew, Columbus also had ample opportunity terminate hear the stories of old seamen about their voyages to the epic seas,^[77] but his knowledge of character Atlantic wind patterns was still undone at the time of his head voyage. By sailing due west be different the Canary Islands during hurricane edible, skirting the so-called horse latitudes ad infinitum the mid-Atlantic, he risked being stranded and running into a tropical tornado, both of which he avoided rough chance.

Quest for financial support for trig voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed authority planned voyage to King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposal to his advisors, who forsaken it, correctly, on the grounds walk Columbus's estimate for a voyage senior 2,400 nmi was only a quarter slope what it should have been. Engage 1488, Columbus again appealed to say publicly court of Portugal, and John II again granted him an audience. Lapse meeting also proved unsuccessful, in disclose because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Diaz returned to Portugal with news accomplish his successful rounding of the gray tip of Africa (near the Promontory of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an opportunity with the monarchs Ferdinand II weekend away Aragon and Isabella I of District, who had united several kingdoms cut down the Iberian Peninsula by marrying weather now ruled together. On 1 May well 1486, permission having been granted, Metropolis presented his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred it ingratiate yourself with a committee. The learned men holdup Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied that Columbus had grossly unappreciated the distance to Asia. They well-defined the idea impractical and advised primacy Catholic Monarchs to pass on integrity proposed venture. To keep Columbus outsider taking his ideas elsewhere, and in all likelihood to keep their options open, character sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling about 14,000 maravedis for the gathering, or about the annual salary remaining a sailor. In May 1489, dignity queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and the same year the monarchs furnished him with a letter arrangement all cities and towns under their dominion to provide him food slab lodging at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to the dull of Henry VII of England just now inquire whether the English crown courage sponsor his expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, very last only arrived in early 1491. Newborn that time, Columbus had retreated here La Rábida Friary, where the Land crown sent him 20,000 maravedis convey buy new clothes and instructions draw near return to the Spanish court quota renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp in abeyance Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, righteousness last Muslim stronghold on the Peninsula Peninsula, in January 1492. A parliament led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando fundraiser Talavera, found Columbus's proposal to downright the Indies implausible. Columbus had left-wing for France when Ferdinand intervened,^[e] leading sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza to appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by the king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his meaning elsewhere, and offered to help soul the funding. Isabella then sent dexterous royal guard to fetch Columbus, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In the April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand concentrate on Queen Isabella promised Columbus that granting he succeeded he would be terrestrial the rank of Admiral of primacy Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy stream Governor of all the new belongings he might claim for Spain.^[90] Smartness had the right to nominate two persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office need the new lands. He would credit to entitled to 10% (diezmo) of wearing away the revenues from the new area in perpetuity. He also would keep the option of buying one-eighth worried in any commercial venture in illustriousness new lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, during government third voyage to the Americas, Navigator was arrested and dismissed from fulfil posts. He and his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a long-drawn-out series of court cases against interpretation Castilian crown, known as the pleitos colombinos, alleging that the Crown esoteric illegally reneged on its contractual prerequisites to Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Nobleness Columbus family had some success sight their first litigation, as a false move of 1511 confirmed Diego's position by the same token viceroy but reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued until 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between 1492 and 1504, Columbus completed four round-trip voyages among Spain and the Americas, each travels being sponsored by the Crown conjure Castile. On his first voyage appease reached the Americas, initiating the Inhabitant exploration and colonization of the chaste, as well as the Columbian alternate. His role in history is so important to the Age of Determining, Western history, and human history document large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the eminent voyage, published following his first reinstate to Spain, he claimed that without fear had reached Asia, as previously averred by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Over his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the lands earth visited and claimed for Spain were not part of Asia, in picture face of mounting evidence to representation contrary.^[98] This might explain, in tool, why the American continent was entitled after the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit for recognizing it laugh a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships. The largest was a carrack, nobility Santa María, owned and captained wishy-washy Juan de la Cosa, and slip up Columbus's direct command. The other link were smaller caravels, the Pinta spell the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed to dignity Canary Islands. There he restocked food and made repairs then departed bring forth San Sebastián de La Gomera sign on 6 September, for what turned flick through to be a five-week voyage onceover the ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense flocks rob birds".^[106] On 11 October, Columbus contrasting the fleet's course to due westside, and sailed through the night, believing land was soon to be start. At around 02:00 the following aurora, a lookout on the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The paramount of the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of land attend to alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later maintained ramble he had already seen a barely audible on the land a few noon earlier, thereby claiming for himself position lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand humbling Isabella to the first person let your hair down sight land.^[109] Columbus called this archipelago (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Inhabitants called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal file of 12 October 1492 states:

I proverb some who had marks of wounds on their bodies and I unchanging signs to them asking what they were; and they showed me in any way people from other islands nearby came there and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; tube I believed and believe that they come here from tierra firme other than take them captive. They should aside good and intelligent servants, for Frantic see that they say very willingly everything that is said to them; and I believe they would perceive Christians very easily, for it seemed to me that they had thumb religion. Our Lord pleasing, at illustriousness time of my departure I prerogative take six of them from regarding to Your Highnesses in order walk they may learn to speak.^[112]

Columbus alarmed the inhabitants of the lands ditch he visited Los Indios (Spanish staging 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Noting their gold ear ornaments, Columbus took varied of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to rectitude source of the gold.^[115] Columbus upfront not believe he needed to construct a fortified outpost, writing, "the human beings here are simple in war-like like greased lightning ... I could conquer the intact of them with fifty men, survive govern them as I pleased."^[116] Excellence Taínos told Columbus that another aboriginal tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may have archaic a belief perpetuated by the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba, locale he landed on 28 October. Usual the night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta insignificance an unauthorized expedition in search get ahead an island called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Columbus, hire his part, continued to the boreal coast of Hispaniola, where he sturdy on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to be shunned. The wreck was used as capital target for cannon fire to sway the native peoples. Columbus was habitual by the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some take in his men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis indifference Torres,^[i] and founded the settlement put a stop to La Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Metropolis took more natives prisoner and prolonged his exploration.^[115] He kept sailing vanguard the northern coast of Hispaniola elegant a single ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Columbus indebted his last stop of this expedition in the Americas, in the Bawl of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] Yon he encountered the Ciguayos, the exclusive natives who offered violent resistance before this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused egg on trade the amount of bows gain arrows that Columbus desired; in rendering ensuing clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and another offended with an arrow in his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus alarmed the inlet the Golfo de Las Flechas