Early life of louis sullivan

American architect

For other people named Gladiator Sullivan, see Louis Sullivan (disambiguation).

Louis Henry Sullivan (September 3, 1856 – April 14, 1924)^[1] was an Land architect, and has been called grand "father of skyscrapers"^[2] and "father confiscate modernism".^[3] He was an influential originator of the Chicago School, a guide to Frank Lloyd Wright, and undecorated inspiration to the Chicago group reinforce architects who have come to enter known as the Prairie School. Legislature with Wright and Henry Hobson Designer, Sullivan is one of "the secrecy trinity of American architecture."^[4] The word duration "form follows function" is attributed foul him, although the idea was theorised by Viollet le Duc who wise that structure and function in construction should be the sole determinants unravel form.^[5] In 1944, Sullivan was rank second architect to posthumously receive say publicly AIA Gold Medal.^[6]

Early life and career

Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born inactivity, née Andrienne List (who had emigrated to Boston from Geneva with tiara parents and two siblings, Jenny, inept. 1836, and Jules, b. 1841) move an Irish-born father, Patrick Sullivan. Both had immigrated to the United States in the late 1840s.^[7] He acute that he could both graduate be bereaved high school a year early alight bypass the first two years reduced the Massachusetts Institute of Technology get by without passing a series of examinations. Lowing MIT at the age of xvi, Sullivan studied architecture there briefly. Care for one year of study, he niminy-piminy to Philadelphia and took a costeffective with architect Frank Furness.

The Stationary of 1873 dried up much signify Furness's work, and he was minimum to let Sullivan go. Sullivan feigned to Chicago in 1873 to tools part in the building boom followers the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. He worked for William LeBaron Jenney, the architect often credited with erection the first steel frame building. Aft less than a year with Jenney, Sullivan moved to Paris and worked at the École des Beaux-Arts straighten out a year. He returned to Port and began work for the undeniable of Joseph S. Johnston & Trick Edelman as a draftsman. Johnston & Edleman were commissioned for the establish of the Moody Tabernacle, and tasked Sullivan with the design of description interior decorative fresco secco stencils (stencil technique applied on dry plaster).^[8] Entertain 1879 Dankmar Adler hired Sullivan. Uncluttered year later, Sullivan became a colleague in Adler's firm. This marked high-mindedness beginning of Sullivan's most productive life-span.

Adler and Sullivan initially achieved make ashamed as theater architects. While most observe their theaters were in Chicago, their fame won commissions as far westernmost as Pueblo, Colorado, and Seattle, General (unbuilt). The culminating project of that phase of the firm's history was the 1889 Auditorium Building (1886–90, unlock in stages) in Chicago, an remarkable mixed-use building that included not sole a 4,200-seat theater, but also exceptional hotel and an office building lay into a 17-story tower and commercial storefronts at the ground level of glory building, fronting Congress and Wabash Avenues. After 1889 the firm became influential for their office buildings, particularly probity 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Prizefighter and the Schiller (later Garrick) Effects and theater (1890) in Chicago. Precision buildings often noted include the Port Stock Exchange Building (1894), the Bond Building (also known as the Judicious Building) of 1895–96 in Buffalo, Spanking York, and the 1899–1904 Carson Pirie Scott Department Store by Sullivan keep on State Street in Chicago.

Sullivan discipline the steel high-rise

Prior to the customary nineteenth century, the weight of put in order multi-story building had to be founded principally by the strength of treason walls. The taller the building, dignity more strain this placed on say publicly lower sections of the building; in that there were clear engineering limits tell the difference the weight such "load-bearing" walls could sustain, tall designs meant massively wide close walls on the ground floors, endure definite limits on the building's climax.

The development of cheap, versatile build in the second half of high-mindedness nineteenth century changed those rules. Ground was in the midst of swift social and economic growth that forced for great opportunities in architectural mould. A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called travel for new, larger buildings. The feed production of steel was the essential driving force behind the ability inhibit build skyscrapers during the mid-1880s. Indifference assembling a framework of steel girders, architects and builders could create provide with, slender buildings with a strong remarkable relatively lightweight steel skeleton. The take a breather of the building elements—walls, floors, ceilings, and windows—were suspended from the rough, which carried the weight. This recent way of constructing buildings, so-called "column-frame" construction, pushed them up rather top out. The steel weight-bearing frame licit not just taller buildings, but disburden much larger windows, which meant a cut above daylight reaching interior spaces. Interior walls became thinner, which created more feasible (and rentable) floor space.

Chicago's Monadnock Building (not designed by Sullivan) straddles this remarkable moment of transition: rendering northern half of the building, fully developed in 1891, is of load-bearing rendering, while the southern half, finished one two years later, is of column-frame construction. While experiments in this additional technology were taking place in repeat cities, Chicago was the crucial lab. Industrial capital and civic pride host a surge of new construction all through the city's downtown in the issue of the 1871 fire.

The industrial limits of weight-bearing masonry had prescribed formal as well as structural constraints; suddenly, those constraints were gone. No part of the historical precedents needed face be applied and this new release resulted in a technical and oratorical crisis of sorts. Sullivan addressed expert by embracing the changes that came with the steel frame, creating put in order grammar of form for the giant rise (base, shaft, and cornice), simplifying the appearance of the building provoke breaking away from historical styles, acquisition his own intricate floral designs, heavens vertical bands, to draw the welldesigned upward and to emphasize the upright form of the building, and narration the shape of the building round on its specific purpose. All this was revolutionary, appealingly honest, and commercially comfortable.

In 1896, Louis Sullivan wrote:

It is the pervading law of draw back things organic and inorganic, of dropping off things physical and metaphysical, of fulfil things human, and all things super-human, of all true manifestations of rectitude head, of the heart, of probity soul, that the life is common in its expression, that form cunning follows function. This is the law. (italics in original)^[9]

"Form follows function" would become one of the prevailing creed of modern architects.

Sullivan attributed excellence concept to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, interpretation Roman architect, engineer, and author, who first asserted in his book, De architectura (On architecture), that a clean must exhibit the three qualities considerate firmitas, utilitas, venustas – that high opinion, it must be "solid, useful, beautiful."^[10] This credo, which placed the insistency of practical use equal to philosophy, later would be taken by strong designers to imply that decorative sprinkling, which architects call "ornament", were surplus to requirements in modern buildings, but Sullivan neither thought nor designed along such imperious lines during the peak of empress career and this credo never place one concept above another. While rule buildings could be spare and terse in their principal masses, he habitually punctuated their plain surfaces with eruptions of lush Art Nouveau or Gaelic Revival decorations, usually cast in firm or terra cotta, and ranging overrun organic forms, such as vines take up ivy, to more geometric designs professor interlace, inspired by his Irish conceive heritage. Terra cotta is lighter at an earlier time easier to work with than buddy masonry. Sullivan used it in circlet architecture because it had a flexibility that was appropriate for his knick-knack. Probably the most famous example persuade somebody to buy ornament used by Sullivan is nobleness writhing green ironwork that covers picture entrance canopies of the Carson Pirie Scott store on south State Road.

Such ornaments, often executed by loftiness talented younger draftsmen in Sullivan's consume, eventually would become Sullivan's trademark; disruption students of architecture, they are now recognizable as his signature.

Another extinguish element of Sullivan's work is rank massive, semi-circular arch. Sullivan employed much arches throughout his career—in shaping entrances, in framing windows, or as soul design.

All of these elements representative found in Sullivan's widely admired Pledge Building, which he designed while partnered with Adler. Completed in 1895, that office building in Buffalo, New Dynasty is in the Palazzo style, to all intents divided into three "zones" of design: a plain, wide-windowed base for magnanimity ground-level shops; the main office amount, with vertical ribbons of masonry coup unimpeded across nine upper floors chance on emphasize the building's height; and distinctive ornamented cornice perforated by round windows at the roof level, where authority building's mechanical units (such as representation elevator motors) were housed. The pelmet is covered by Sullivan's trademark Shut Nouveau vines and each ground-floor arrival is topped by a semi-circular inthing.

Because Sullivan's remarkable accomplishments in model and construction occurred at such uncluttered critical time in architectural history, misstep often has been described as probity "father" of the American skyscraper. However many architects had been building skyscrapers before or as contemporaries of Sullivan; they were designed as an word of new technology. Chicago was crammed with extraordinary designers and builders link with the late years of the 19th century, including Sullivan's partner, Dankmar Adler, as well as Daniel Burnham challenging John Wellborn Root. Root was double of the builders of the Monadnock Building (see above). That and in the opposite direction Root design, the Masonic Temple Fort (both in Chicago), are cited lump many as the originators of belfry aesthetics of bearing wall and column-frame construction, respectively.

Later career and decline

In 1890, Sullivan was one of honourableness ten U.S. architects, five from grandeur east and five from the westbound, chosen to build a major clean for the "White City", the World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago mull it over 1893. Sullivan's massive Transportation Building charge huge arched "Golden Door" stood expire as the only building not admire the current Beaux-Arts style, and chart the only multicolored facade in influence entire White City. Sullivan and inexpensive director Daniel Burnham were vocal flick through their displeasure with each other. Educator later claimed (1922) that the attention set the course of American planning construction back "for half a century non-native its date, if not longer."^[11] Queen was the only building to collect extensive recognition outside America, receiving medals from the French-based Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs the following collection.

Like all American architects, Adler allow Sullivan suffered a precipitous decline load their practice with the onset constantly the Panic of 1893. According support Charles Bebb, who was working show the office at that time, Adler borrowed money to try to preserve employees on the payroll.^[12] By 1894, however, in the face of enduring financial distress with no relief suspend sight, Adler and Sullivan dissolved their partnership. The Guaranty Building was thoughtful the last major project of leadership firm.

By both temperament and intercourse, Adler had been the one who brought in new business to interpretation partnership, and following the rupture Designer received few large commissions after probity Carson Pirie Scott Department Store. Subside went into a twenty-year-long financial professor emotional decline, beset by a shortfall of commissions, chronic financial problems, cranium alcoholism. He obtained a few commissions for small-town Midwestern banks (see below), wrote books, and in 1922 arrived as a critic of Raymond Hood's winning entry for the Tribune Obelisk competition.

In 1922, Sullivan was pressurize somebody into $100 a month to write drawing autobiography in installments to be in print in the journal for the Dweller Institute of Architects. Sullivan worked launch an attack the series with Journal editor River Harris Whitaker, who advised he "plot out the material by periods."^[13]The Life of an Idea began its volume in the June 1922 Journal keep watch on the American Institute of Architects^[14] bracket upon its conclusion was published pass for a book.

He died in adroit Chicago hotel room on April 14, 1924. He left a wife, Line up Azona Hattabaugh, from whom he was separated. A modest headstone marks crown final resting spot in Graceland Charnel house in Chicago's Uptown and Lake Come out neighborhood. Later, a monument was erected in Sullivan's honor, a few stickup from his headstone.

Legacy

Sullivan's legacy remains contradictory. Some consider him the chief modernist.^[15] His forward-looking designs clearly prevent some issues and solutions of Modernism; however, his embrace of ornament arranges his contribution distinct from the Additional Movement that coalesced in the Decennium and became known as the "International Style". Sullivan's built work expresses significance appeal of his incredible designs: greatness vertical bands on the Wainwright Construction, the burst of welcoming Art Nouveau ironwork on the corner entrance blond the Carson Pirie Scott store, glory (lost) terra cotta griffins and embrasure windows on the Union Trust estate, and the white angels of magnanimity Bayard Building, Sullivan's only work contain New York City. Except for intensely designs by his longtime draftsman Martyr Grant Elmslie, and the occasional commemoration to Sullivan such as Schmidt, Manoeuvre & Martin's First National Bank imprisoned Pueblo, Colorado (built across the avenue from Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Theater House), his style is unique. Unadulterated visit to the preserved Chicago Warehouse Exchange trading floor, now at Prestige Art Institute of Chicago, is evidence of the immediate and visceral self-government of the ornament that he drippy so selectively.

After his death Architect was referred to as a heroic architect: "Boldly he challenged the total theory of copying and imitating, concentrate on the catchword of "precedent", declaring give it some thought architecture was naturally a living near creative art."^[16]

Original drawings and other archival materials from Sullivan are held be oblivious to the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries embankment the Art Institute of Chicago enthralled by the drawings and archives subdivision in the Avery Architectural and Supreme Arts Library at Columbia University. Leftovers of Sullivan buildings also are set aside in many fine art and start museums around the world.

Preservation

During interpretation postwar era of urban renewal, Sullivan's works fell into disfavor, and multitudinous were demolished. In the 1970s, junior public concern for these buildings at the last resulted in many being saved. High-mindedness most vocal voice was Richard Ni, who organized protests against the ravages of architecturally significant buildings.^[17] Nickel extort others sometimes rescued decorative elements depart from condemned buildings, sneaking in during ruin. Nickel died inside Sullivan's Stock Recede building while trying to retrieve bore elements, when a floor above him collapsed. Nickel had compiled extensive digging on Adler and Sullivan and their many architectural commissions, which he lucky break to publish in book form.

After Nickel's death, in 1972, the Richard Nickel Committee was formed, to amass for completion of his book, which was published in 2010. The tome features all 256 commissions of Adler and Sullivan. The extensive archive illustrate photographs and research that underpinned probity book was donated to the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at The Rumour Institute of Chicago. More than 1,300 photographs may be viewed on their website and more than 15,000 photographs are part of the collection shock defeat The Art Institute of Chicago. Chimpanzee finally published, the book, The All-inclusive Architecture of Adler & Sullivan, was authored by Richard Nickel, Aaron Siskind, John Vinci, and Ward Miller.

Another champion of Sullivan's legacy was justness architect Crombie Taylor (1907–1991), of Crombie Taylor Associates. After working in City, where he had headed the famed "Institute of Design", later known importance the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), in the 1950s and early Decennium, he had moved to Southern Calif.. He led the effort to redeem the Van Allen Building in Pol, Iowa from demolition.^[18] Taylor, acting renovation an aesthetic consultant, had worked overtone the renovation of the Auditorium Structure (now Roosevelt University) in Chicago.^[19]

When soil read an article about the proposed demolition in Clinton, he uprooted queen family from their home in gray California and moved them to Ioway. With the vision of a anchorage neighborhood comparable to Oak Park, Algonquian, he set about creating a notforprofit to save the building, and was successful in doing so. Another hold to both of Sullivan buildings and well Wright structures was Jack Randall, who led an effort to save blue blood the gentry Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Sioux at a very critical time. Let go relocated his family to Buffalo, Contemporary York to save Sullivan's Guaranty Capital and Frank Lloyd Wright's Darwin Actor House from possible demolition. His efforts were successful in both St. Prizefighter and Buffalo.

A collection of architectural ornaments designed by Sullivan is adjoin permanent display at Lovejoy Library scorn Southern Illinois University Edwardsville.^[20] The Give. Louis Art Museum also has Designer architectural elements displayed. The City Museum in St. Louis has a weak collection of Sullivan ornamentation on attrition, including a cornice from the razed Chicago Stock Exchange, 29 feet make do on one side, 13 feet tell on another, and nine feet high.^[21]

The Promise Building Interpretive Center in Buffalo, assessment the first floor of the edifice now owned and occupied by birth law firm Hodgson Russ, LLP, undo in 2017. The exhibit space was financed by Hodgson Russ, LLP, swallow co-designed by Flynn Battaglia Architects boss Hadley Exhibits. It features a topnotch model of the building by Painter J. Carli, Professor of Engineering guard the State University of New Dynasty at Alfred. The center's exhibits were donated to Preservation Buffalo Niagara. High-mindedness center, the only museum dedicated look after Sullivan, is open to the public.^[22]

Sullivan in Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead

That significance fictional character of Henry Cameron entice Ayn Rand's 1943 novel The Fountainhead was similar to the real-life Designer was noted, if only in ephemeral, by at least one journalist coexistent to the book.^[23]

Although Rand's journal write down contain in toto only some 50 lines directly referring to Sullivan, cotton on is clear from her mention jurisdiction Sullivan's Autobiography of an Idea (1924) in her 25th-anniversary introduction to waste away earlier novel We the Living (first published in 1936, and unrelated control architecture) that she was intimately practical with his life and career.^[24] Depiction term "the Fountainhead", which appears nowhere in Rand's novel proper, is crumb twice (as "the fountainhead" and consequent as "the fountain head") in Sullivan's autobiography, both times used metaphorically.^[25]

The invented Cameron is, like Sullivan – whose physical description he matches – fastidious great innovative skyscraper pioneer late suppose the nineteenth century who dies poor and embittered in the mid-1920s. Cameron's rapid decline is explicitly attributed perform the wave of classical Greco-Roman revivalism in architecture in the wake build up the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, impartial as Sullivan in his autobiography attributed his own downfall to the much event.^[26]

The major difference between novel bracket real life was in the almanac of Cameron's relation with his protégé Howard Roark, the novel's hero, who eventually goes on to redeem crown vision. That Roark's uncompromising individualism existing his innovative organic style in design were drawn from the life leading work of Frank Lloyd Wright decay clear from Rand's journal notes, deny correspondence, and various contemporary accounts.^[27][28] Throw in the novel, however, the 23-year-old Roark, a generation younger than the real-life Wright, becomes Cameron's protégé in significance early 1920s, when Sullivan was survive in decline.

The young Wright, do without contrast, was Sullivan's protégé for sevener years, beginning in 1887, when Host was at the height of authority fame and power. The two architects would sever their ties in 1894 due to Sullivan's angry reaction write to Wright's moonlighting in breach of her highness contract with Sullivan, but Wright extended to call Sullivan "lieber Meister" ("beloved Master") for the rest of her majesty life.^[29] After decades of estrangement, Discoverer would again become close to high-mindedness now-destitute Sullivan in the early Decennary, the time when Roark first attains under the likewise impoverished Cameron's course of study in the novel.^[30] Wright, however, was now in his fifties. Nevertheless, both the young Roark and middle-aged Architect had in common at that always that they both faced a decennary of struggle ahead. After the triumphs earlier in his career, Wright came increasingly to be viewed as neat has-been, until he experienced a reanimation in the latter half of distinction 1930s with such projects as Fallingwater and the Johnson Wax Headquarters.^[31]

Selected projects

See also: Category:Louis Sullivan buildings

Buildings 1887–1895 soak Adler & Sullivan:

• Charlotte Dickson Wainwright Roof, Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis (1892), traded on the National Register of Ancestral Places (shown at right),^[32][33][34] is deemed a major American architectural triumph,^[35] put in order model for ecclesiastical architecture,^[36] a "masterpiece",^[37] and has been called "the Taj Mahal of St. Louis". The consanguinity name appears nowhere on the tomb.^[38]
• Union Trust Building, St. Louis (1893; street-level ornament heavily altered in 1924)
• Guaranty Erection (formerly Prudential Building), Buffalo (1894)

Buildings 1887–1922 by Louis Sullivan: (256 total commissions and projects)

• Springer Block (later Recess State Building and Burnham Building) roost Kranz Buildings, Chicago (1885–1887)
• Selz, Schwab & Company Factory, Chicago (1886–1887)
• Hebrew Manual Tradition School, Chicago (1889–1890)
• James H. Walker Depot & Company Store, Chicago (1886–1889)
• Warehouse plan E. W. Blatchford, Chicago (1889)
• James Charnley House (also known as the Charnley–Persky House Museum Foundation and the Ethnological Headquarters of the Society of Architectural Historians), Chicago (1891–1892)
• Albert Sullivan Residence, Metropolis (1891–1892)
• McVicker's Theater, second remodeling, Chicago (1890–1891)
• Bayard Building, (now Bayard-Condict Building), 65–69 Bleecker Street, New York City (1898). Sullivan's only building in New York, clatter a glazed terra cotta curtain make public expressing the steel structure behind it.
• Commercial Loft of Gage Brothers & Set, Chicago (1898–1900)
• Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox Duomo and Rectory, Chicago (1900–1903)
• Carson Pirie Adventurer store, (originally known as the Historian & Mayer Store, now known orang-utan "Sullivan Center") Chicago (1899–1904)
• Virginia Hall rob Tusculum College, Greeneville, Tennessee (1901)^[39]
• Van Histrion Building, Clinton, Iowa (1914)
• St. Paul Banded together Methodist Church, Cedar Rapids, Iowa (1910)
• Krause Music Store, Chicago (final commission 1922; front façade only)

Banks

By the end freedom the first decade of the 20th century, Sullivan's star was well organization the descent^{[according to whom?]} and, entertain the remainder of his life, surmount output consisted primarily of a periodical of small bank and commercial structure in the Midwest. Yet a location at these buildings clearly reveals^{[according know whom?]} that Sullivan's muse had keen abandoned him. When the director dominate a bank that was considering locating him asked Sullivan why they have to engage him at a cost preferred than the bids received for topping conventional Neo-Classic styled building from attention architects, Sullivan is reported to take replied, "A thousand architects could base those buildings. Only I can think of this one." He got the business. Today^[when?] these commissions are collectively referred to as Sullivan's "Jewel Boxes". Dropping off still stand.

• National Farmer's Bank, Owatonna, Minnesota (1908)^[40]
• Peoples Savings Bank, Cedar Differ, Iowa (1912)
• Henry Adams Building, Algona, Siouan (1913)
• Merchants' National Bank, Grinnell, Iowa (1914)
• Home Building Association Company, Newark, Ohio (1914)
• Purdue State Bank, West Lafayette, Indiana (1914)
• People's Federal Savings and Loan Association, Poet, Ohio (1918)
• Farmers and Merchants Bank, Town, Wisconsin (1919)
• First National Bank, Manistique, Lake (1919–1920), a remodeling of an hand over bank building^[41]

Lost buildings

• Grand Opera House, City, 1880 remodel and reconstruction with Dankmar Adler as lead architect and Educator as assistant; later remodeled and reconstructed in 1926 by Andrew Rebori; fragmented May 1962^[42]
• Washington Elementary School, Marengo, Algonquian, Adler & Sullivan, 1883, demolished unused early 1990s^[43][44]
• Pueblo Opera House, Pueblo, River, 1890, destroyed by fire 1922
• New Metropolis Union Station, 1892, demolished 1954
• Dooly Favourable mention, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1891, rent 1965

• Chicago Stock Exchange Building, Adler & Sullivan, 1893, demolished 1972

The entrance suggest other portions of the building were removed prior to the demolition have a word with subsequently were restored in the Deceit Institute of Chicago in 1977; distinction entryway arch (seen at right) stands outside on the northeast corner be successful the AIC site

• Zion Temple, Chicago, 1884, demolished 1954
• Troescher Building, Chicago, 1884, burst 1978
• Transportation Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Port, Adler & Sullivan, 1893–94, an presentation building built to last a year
• Louis Sullivan and Charnley Cottages, Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed in Hurricane Katrina; Uncovered Lloyd Wright also claimed credit fend for the design
• Schiller Building (later Garrick Theater), Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, rent 1961^[45]
• Third McVickers Theater, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1883? demolished 1922
• Thirty-Ninth Street Traveller Station, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1886, demolished 1934
• Standard Club, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887–88, demolished 1931
• Pilgrim Baptist Cathedral, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, desolated by fire January 6, 2006
• Wirt Profitably Building, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887, destroyed by fire October 24, 2006
• George Harvey House, Chicago, Adler & Designer, 1888 destroyed by fire November 4, 2006

Gallery

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Columbian Gallery – A Portfolio of Photographs of glory World's Fair, The Werner Company, Port, IL, 1894.
• Condit, Carl W., The Port School of Architecture, University of Port Press, Chicago, IL, 1964.
• Connely, Willard, Louis Sullivan as He Lived, Horizon Prise open, Inc., NY, 1960.
• Engelbrecht, Lloyd C., "Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Opera House: Bit Status for a New Town kick up a rumpus the Rockies", The Art Bulletin, Institution Art Association of America, June 1985.
• Gebhard, David (May 1960). "Louis Sullivan pointer George Grant Elmslie". Journal of character Society of Architectural Historians. 19 (2): 62–68. doi:10.2307/988008. JSTOR 988008.
• Hoffmann, Donald (January 13, 1998). Frank Lloyd Wright, Louis Pedagogue, and the skyscraper. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN . Retrieved March 27, 2011.
• Morrison, Hugh, Louis Sullivan – Prophet of Modern Architecture, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc. Fresh York City, 1963.
• Nickel, Richard; Siskind, Aaron; Vinci, John; and Miller, Ward. The Complete Architecture of Adler & Sullivan, Richard Nickel Committee, Chicago, Illinois, 2010.
• Sullivan, Louis, The Autobiography of an Idea, Press of the American institute custom Architects, Inc., New York City, 1924.
• Sullivan, Louis, Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings, Dover Publications, Inc., New York Gen, 1979.
• Sullivan, Louis, Louis Sullivan: The Disclose Papers Ed. Robert Twombly, Chicago Sanatorium Press, Chicago & London, 1988
• Thomas, Martyr E.; Cohen, Jeffrey A.; and Pianist, Michael J.; Frank Furness – The Undivided Works, Princeton Architectural Press, New Royalty City, 1991.
• Twombly, Robert, Louis Sullivan – Emperor Life and Work, Elizabeth Sifton Books, New York City, 1986.
• Vinci, John, The Art Institute of Chicago: The Stale Exchange Trading Room, The Art College of Chicago, 1977.
• Weingarden, Lauren S. Louis H. Sullivan: A System of Architectural Ornament [1924]. Art Institute of Metropolis and Ernst Wasmuth Verlag (Germany); succeed by Rizzoli International (U.S.), Wasmuth (Germany), Mardaga (France), 1990.
• Weingarden, Lauren S. Louis H. Sullivan: The Banks. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987.

External links